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6 GUIDELINE ON MAINSTREAMING CLIMATE RESPONSIVENESS AND RESILIENCE INTO URBAN PLANNINGGUIDELINE ON MAINSTREAMING CLIMATE RESPONSIVENESS AND RESILIENCE INTO URBAN PLANNING 6The intersection, or nexus, between climate change response (in particular adaptation) and development planning provides several entry points to facilitate mainstreaming, as the aim of both are to reduce the root causes of vulnerability. Development patterns affect a city%u2019s exposure, vulnerability, and capacity to adapt to the negative effects of climate change. Poor development choices can worsen vulnerability to the impacts of climate change, and trigger maladaptation (UNEP, 2011). It is therefore important to %u201cconsider all current and future costs to all parties involved in the provision of infrastructure and social services%u201d that support and promote development (City Think Space; Setplan, 2017, p. 12). Mainstreaming has been critiqued for its ability to inadvertently reproduce risk when implemented within inadequate and poor planning practices (Runhaar et al., 2018). It is therefore important to be critically aware of the dominant planning practices to ensure that the risk of maladaptation is limited.See Box 2 for more information on maladaptation. Although poor and unplanned development may increase exposure and vulnerability, investments also need to be protected from climate change impacts by including principles of climate resilience, resource efficiency and sustainability in development planning and spatial planning. Mainstreaming adaptation actions into sectoral plans and policies, increases the likelihood of the success of development under a changing climate (Mogelgaard, et al., 2018). The role of planning in adaptation is widely recognised, but planning is also positioned to support mitigation through land-use planning systems that can facilitate community design, transportation networks and development densities in support of reducing greenhouse gas emissions (Hagen, 2016).Mainstreaming approaches can be classified in terms of horizontal and vertical approaches. Vertical mainstreaming occurs between levels or spheres of government such as national, provincial, and local. Vertical mainstreaming often occurs within a specific sector and is associated with high levels of guidance and regulation. Whereas horizontal mainstreaming occurs across sectors and broader planning frameworks and requires high levels of coordination and transversality (Wamsler et al., 2014; Rauken et al., 2015; Reckien et al., 2019). Successful mainstreaming requires that both approaches be applied. The Guideline set out in this document, and particularly in Section 4, provides a framework for those within municipalitiesthat develop plans and take decisions, to apply both approaches, with a specific focus on horizontal mainstreaming as this remains the greatest challenge. The next Section will discuss this, and other challenges and successes in mainstreaming based on assessments across metropolitan municipalities.